Thursday, December 19, 2024

The Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594: the Coronation of the Prince of Purpoole.

In the Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594 series:

Here, in the third installment of The Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594, we will spare the reader the looong list and order of officers in the procession to crown His Highness the Prince of Purpoole and begin at the end.


Upon the 20th. Day of December, being St. Thomas's Eve, the Prince, with all his Train in Order, as above set down, marched from his Lodging, to the great Hall; and there took his place in his Throne, under a rich Cloth of State: His Counsellors and great Lords were placed about him, and before him; below the Half-pace, at a Table, sate his learned Council and Lawyers; the rest of the Officers and Attendants took their proper Places, as belonged to their Condition.


Upon the performance of the coronation ritual, the also ritual announcements were made attendant upon the coronation feast. As was the tradition, after the coronation of every English monarch, the king's champion would enter the hall in full armor on horse-back


Then the Trumpets were commanded to sound thrice; which being done, the King at Arms, in his rich Surcoat of Arms, stood forth before the Prince, and proclaimed his Style as followeth.

By the sacred Laws of Arms, and authorized Ceremonies of the same (maugre the Conceit of any Malecontent) I do pronounce my Sovereign Liege Lord, Sir Henry, rightfully to be the high and mighty Prince of Purpoole, Arch-Duke of Stapulia [Staple Inn] and Bernardia [Barnard Inn], Duke of the High and Nether Holborn [Streets], Marquis of St. Giles's [Parish] and Tottenham, Count Palatine of Bloomsbury and Clerkenwell, Great Lord of the Cantons of Islington, &c. Knight of the most honourable Order of the Helmet, and Sovereign of the same.



After that the King at Arms had thus proclaimed his Style, the Trumpets sounded again; and then entred the Prince's Champion, all in compleat Armour, on Horse-back, and so came riding round about the Fire; and in the midst of the Hall, stayed, and made his Challenge in these Words following.

If there be any Man, of high Degree, or low, that will say that my Sovereign is not rightly Prince of Purpoole, as by his King at Arms right-now hath been proclaimed, I am ready here to maintain, that he lieth as a false Traitor; and I do challenge, in Combat, to fight with him, either now, or at any time or place appointed: And in token hereof, I gage my Gauntlet, us the Prince's true Knight, and his Champion.


The challenge was followed by facetious speeches featuring sarcastic Latin mottos.


When the Champion had thus made his Challenge, he departed; then the Trumpets were commanded to sound, and the King at Arms blazoned the Prince his Highness's Arms, as followeth.

The most mighty Prince of Purpoole, &c. beareth his Shield of the highest Jupiter. In Point, a Sacred Imperial Diadem, safely guarded by the Helmet of the great Goddess Pallas, from the Violence of Darts, Bullets and Bolts of Saturn, Momus, and the Idiot; all environed with the Ribband of Loyalty, having a Pendant of the most heroical Order of Knighthood of the Helmet; the Word hereunto, Sic virtus honorem [Thus would I trick out virtue]. For his Highness's Crest, the glorious Planet Sol, coursing through the twelve Signs of the Zodiack, on a Celestial Globe, moved upon the two Poles, Artick and Antartick; with this Motto, Dum totum peragraverit orbem [He has wandered through each orbit]. All set upon a Chaphew: Mars turned up, Luna mantelled, Sapphire doubted Pearl, supported by two anciently renowned and glorious Griffyns, which have been always in League with the honourable Pegasus.



The Conceit hereof was to shew, that the Prince, whose private Arms were three Helmets, should defend his Honour by Vertue, from Reprehensions of Male-contents, Carpers and Fools. The Ribband of Blue, with an Helmet Pendant, in intimation of St. George. In his Crest, his Government for the twelve Days of Christmas was resembled to the Sun's passing the twelve Signs, though the Prince's Course had some odd degrees beyond that time: But he was wholly supported by the Griffyns; for Grays-Inn-Gentlemen, and not the Treasure of the House, was charged. The Words, Sic virtus honorem, that his Vertue should defend his Honour, whilst he had run his whole Course of Dominion, without any either Eclipse or Retrogradation.


The challenge was followed by further facetious speeches and a pageant and dancing.


Then His Highness called for the Master of the Revels, and willed him to pass the time in Dancing: So his Gentlemen-Pensioners and Attendants, very gallantly appointed, in thirty Couples, danced the Old Measures, and their Galliards, and other kind of Dances, revelling until it was very late; and so spent the rest of their Performance in those Exercises, until it pleased His Honour to take his way to his Lodging, with Sound of Trumpets, and his Attendants in order, as is above set down.

There was the Conclusion of the first grand Night, the Performance whereof increased the Expectation of those things that were to ensue; insomuch that the common Report amongst all Strangers was so great, and the Expectation of our Proceedings so extraordinary, that it urged us to take upon us a greater State than was at the first intended: And therefore, besides all the stately and sumptuous Service that was continually done the Prince, in very Princely manner; and besides the daily Revels, and such like Sports, which were usual, there was intended divers grand Nights, for the Entertainment of Strangers to our Pass-times and Sports.


Source: Gesta Grayorum, or, The history of the high and mighty prince, Henry Prince of Purpoole (1688).




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Saturday, December 14, 2024

The Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594: Getting the Money and the Guest List Right.

In the Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594 series:

After the first round of “Royal letters,” demanding tribute from the fellow members, reprinted in the previous installment of “The Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn,” a second was sent to recalcitrant subjects.

WHereas upon our former Letters to you, which required your Personal Appearance and Contribution, you have returned us Answer that you will be present, without satisfying the residue of the Contents for the Benevolence,...

They have accepted the invitation to join in the festivities but haven't made the suggested contribution “as may express your good affection to the State, and be answerable to your quality [social rank].”

The result of this, we learn, was more satisfactory. England's Lord Great Treasurer, and Queen Elizabeth's most trusted advisor, sent along a contribution worth mentioning individually.

By this means the Prince's Treasure was well increased; as also by the great Bounty of divers honourable Favourers of our State, that imparted their Liberality, to the setting forward of our intended Pass-times. Amongst the rest, the Right Honourable Sir William Cecill, Kt. Lord Treasurer of England, being of our Society, deserved honourable Remembrance, for his liberal and noble Mindfulness of us, and our State; who, undesired, sent to the Prince, as a Token of his Lordship's Favour, 10l. and a Purse of fine rich Needlework.

It is not for the quality of the present alone that William Cecil, the Baron Burghley, is mentioned, however. Since shortly after he entered Gray's Inn as a student in 1541 he became a special advocate for it at the actual Royal Court that the Prince of Purpoole and his courtiers were mimicking.

One of the principal goals of Burghley's government, since the ascension of Elizabeth, was to replace unskilled headstrong young noblemen, such as traditionally held office, and their haunch-men subordinates, with men well-trained in law and accounting. Toward this end he sent many a young man — common and noble — to his alma mater for training.

Who received the “ Purse of fine rich Needlework” we can only guess. The 10l. Surely went into the party fund.

The next order of business was to invite their ally, the Inner Temple, to join the festivities.

To the most Honourable and Prudent, the Governors, Assistants and Society of the Inner Temple.

Most Grave and Noble,

WE have, upon good Consideration, made choice of a Prince, to be predominant in our State of Purpoole, for some important Causes that require an Head, or Leader: And as we have ever had great Cause, by the Warrant of Experience, to assure our selves of your unfeigned Love and Amity, so we are, upon this Occasion, and in the Name of our Prince Elect, to pray you, that it may be continued; and in Demonstration thereof, that you will be pleased to assist us with your Counsel, in the Person of an Ambassador, that may be Resident here amongst us, and be a Minister of Correspondence between us, and to advise of such Affairs, as the Effects whereof, we hope, shall sort to the Benefit of both our Estates. And so, being ready to requite you with all good Offices, we leave you to the Protection of the Almighty.

Your most Loving Friend and Ally Grays-Inn.

Dated at our Court of Graya, this 14th. of December, 1594.

Henry Edward Duke, informs us, in his 1912 lecture on Gray's Inn,1 that it is probable that the concept of Inns of Court and Chancery began to be realized during the reign of Edward I, in the late 13th century.

The Inner Temple was so named because it was constructed around the New Round Temple (with chancel added) that replaced the Old built by the Knights Templar during the reign of Henry II. In order to confiscate to the crown the vast sums the Templars had come to store on the grounds of the various Temples in Britain and Europe the order was outlawed in 1312.

Hugh H. L. Bellot informs us2 that by 1337 two halls on the Temple grounds were in possession of lawyers. By the middle of the 15th century, several Inns of Court, including Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple, are referred to in letters as already being “ancient” (then a term of respect). The consecrated Temple grounds inside the city of London became known as The Inner Temple, the unconsecrated as The Middle Temple.

Bellot continues, stating that the Temple Round (temple and grounds) appear

to have been used by both Houses in common, and continued after [1638] to be one of the customary places where rents could be paid, mortgages discharged, and other contracts completed, and to be used as a place for lounge and conversation, for conferences between the two Houses,...3

He cites examples of doing business in the Temple in the works of Ben Jonson and Samuel Butler. He does not think of one other. The reader may remember this from Shakespeare's 1 Henry IV.

Iacke, meete me to morrow in the temple haule

At two of clocke in the afternoone,

There shalt thou know thy charge, and there receive

Money and order for their furniture,

The land is burning, Percy stands on high,

And either we or they must lower lie. [III.iii]


Curiously enough, being immediately next door, it is also likely where the young Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford, resident at Gray's Inn, met to do the same business with his retainer Thomas Churchyard before sending him off to the Low Countries as his representative.

Doing business on the Round was forbidden a decade or so after Vere departed only to become the practice again sometime around the mid-1590s. Exactly when the practice resumed is not clear but a row of stalls and shops running from the south wall of the church to its eastern extent dubbed “Cloister Court” existed in 1596.

Surely, the famous Paul's Walk, at London's St. Paul's Cathedral, was inspired by the round. It can genuinely be said to have been England's first shopping mall. For decades, beginning sometime in the 1590s, anyone with public business or information strolled along the aisles of the cathedral and pasted notices up on the columns. Along the walls, inside and out, were stalls fit up as shops for every kind of ware. The place was a mass of shoppers, and weddings, funerals and other religious services were performed in side-chapels while the crowd went about its business and pleasure in the main body of the church.

Like any mall, we may picture it, about now, gaily decorated for the holy days.




1 Duke, Edward Henry. “Gray's Inn.” Six Lectures on the Inns of Court and of Chancery (1912). 186-219.

2 Bellot, Hugh H. L. The Inner and Middle Temple (1902).

3 Ibid., 223.




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Sunday, December 08, 2024

The Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594: Letters go out under Privy Seal.

Gray's Inn (bottom right)

In the Famous Christmas Celebration at Gray's Inn, 1594 series:

Henry Edward Duke's 1912 lecture on Gray's Inn1 provides us with a bit of the history of the place. Among the information that the Inns of Court were instituted during the reign of Edward I and that Gray's Inn was established on an “ancient manor, which was called the Manor of Portpoole... an endowment of one of the prebends of St. Paul's Cathedral, and then 600 years or more ago passed into the possession of a Chief Justice of Chester, Reginald Le Gray” Duke quotes Lady Bacon, “Nicholas Bacon's second wife”:

In 1594 Lady Bacon, who was a great Puritan, wrote to her son Anthony, who was suspected of not having been a strict Puritan, "I trust they will not mum nor sinfully make revel at Gray's Inn."

What could have possessed her, neither we nor the members of Gray's Inn court of the newly elected Prince of Purpoole might guess. Of course, they intended to do nothing so much and with such abandon as that.


After many consultations had hereupon by the youths and others that were most forward herein, at length, about the 12th of December, with the consent and assistance of the Readers and Ancients, it was determined, that there should be elected a Prince of Purpoole, to govern our state for the time; which was intended to be for the credit of Gray's Inn, and rather to be performed by witty inventions than chargeable expences.

The members of the Inn were generally young sons of wealthy families, therefore expected to pitch-in considerable sums toward making the prince's court respectable.


Whereupon, they presently made choice of one Mr. Henry Holmes, a Norfolk gentleman, who was thought to be accomplished with all good parts, fit for so great a dignity; and was also a very proper man of personage, and very active in dancing and revelling.

Then was his Privy Council assigned him, to advise of state-matters, and the government of his dominions: his lodging also was provided according to state; as the Presence Chamber, and the Council Chamber. Also all Officers of State, of the Law, and of the Household. There were also appointed Gentlemen Pensioners to attend on his person, and a guard, with their Captain, for his defence.


Towards this end, “royal letters” were issued under the prince's privy seal. It is with these that we begin our description of the famous Christmas festivities at Gray's Inn.


The next thing thought upon, as most necessary, was, provision of Treasure, for the support of his state and dignity. To this purpose, there was granted a benevolence by those that were then in his Court abiding; and for those that were not in the House, there were letters directed to them, in nature of Privy Seals, to enjoin them, not only to be present, and give their attendance at his Court; but also, that they should contribute to the defraying of so great a charge, as was guessed to be requisite for the performance of so great intendments.

The Form of the Privy Seals directed to the foreigners, upon occasion as is aforesaid:

"Your friends of the Society of Gray's Inn now residing there, have thought good to elect a Prince, to govern the state of the Signiory, now by discontinuance much impaired in the ancient honour wherein heretofore it hath excelled all other of like dignity. These are therefore, in the name of the said Prince, to require you forthwith to resort to the Court there holden, to assist the proceedings with your person ; and withal, upon the receipt hereof, to make contribution of such benevolence as may express your good affection to the State, and be answerable to your quality. We have appointed our well-beloved Edward Jones our foreign collector, who shall attend you by himself, or by his deputy.

" Dated at our Court at Graya, Your loving friend, the 13th of December, 1594. GRAY'S-INN."

Duke's lecture describes the daily routine in the Inn:

'...the men must be in Commons and keep their chapels; there was daily chapel, morning and afternoon ; there were the meals in common, dinner at 12 o'clock and supper at 6 or 7 o'clock; there were moots and bolts and exercises day in and day out and week in and week out throughout great part of the year. 

*

There were moots in term time, and then on the first Monday in Lent and the first Monday after Lammas there began the learning vacations. In term time there were moots in which the Benchers were seated as judges and an Outer Barrister and an Inner Barrister were assigned on each side as advocates. An Outer Barrister of the Society stated a case and thereupon the Inner Barrister, who was the junior, stated, of course in Norman French, the appropriate pleading for the plaintiff, and the Inner Barrister who was on the other side stated the appropriate pleading for the defendant. Thereupon issue was joined and the two men who were the leaders, and were practising in anticipation of the time when they should take charge of people's interests in Westminster Hall, set to and conducted an argument before the Bench of the Society.

Those were the exercises of the more advanced students ; but when the Outer Barrister was not engaged in that way he was conducting what were called bolts for the Inner Barristers. I suppose he was "bolting," that is sifting, the knowledge of the Inner Barristers. He set questions for argument, and it was the business of every man from time to time to propound a "case." '

This was the regimen of six days a week, every week. Chapel, breakfast, legal exercises; chapel, lunch, legal exercises; supper, burning the midnight oil, bed. Repeat. Working vacations passed with the Vacation Reader daily reading law text to students who generally remained at the Inn.

This was the regimen of six days a week, every week. Of course, they were going to attend chapel twice daily and to do the 1594 version of Animal House the rest of the day during the high holidays.

And this Christmas season (2024) we will follow along and enjoy watching the fun.




1 Six Lectures on the Inns Of Court And Of Chancery (1912). 186-219.




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Friday, November 29, 2024

Henry VIII and the Politics of Divorce: It's Complicated.

 

In this series:

To even begin to understand the dilemma Henry VIII faced trying to get a dispensation from the Pope to divorce his Queen, Catherine of Aragon, we must first give a brief overview of matters in Italy between the Battle of Pavia (1525) and Henry's decision to try to force the Pope's hand, in 1529, which we have outlined in the previous piece.

To simplify greatly, France felt it must reduce the power of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, by reducing his power over Italy. The competition between the two then greatest European powers had already resulted in every kind of deviousness between and within the two realms.

The first phase of the conflict ended with the Imperial military victory at Pavia. The french King Francis I was captured and held prisoner for about a year. Once free he allied himself with a league of Italian states newly formed by Pope Clement VII in hopes to prevent Charles taking Italy ever more firmly under his control. Thus reneging on the conditions of his release (a.k.a. The Treaty of Madrid), and regardless that his sons were being held hostage in order to assure he would not, Francis assembled new armies in Italy.

The resulting maneuver and combat bordered on being a free-for-all. Allies failed to fulfill their promises. On those occassions when they did so, they failed to coordinate their maneuvers thus losing precious time. From time to time it was difficult to be sure who was on whose side. The troops on all sides went unpaid for extended periods of time and sacked what towns and cities were at hand, in lieu of payment, without concern for whose territory they were, friend or foe.

Amidst all of this the English Cardinal Wolsey was putting out feelers for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of Charles V. Charles owed Henry more than a few major favors but would not agree to negotiate Catherine's divorce. Finally, Henry was declared “Protector” of the Italian League in hopes of bringing material support from England. He did not take the bait but rather sought to improve his negotiating position with both Emperor and Pope — largely without success.

At last Rome itself was pillaged, on May 6, 1527, by Imperial soldiers long unpaid. The Duke of Bourbon, Commanding General of the Imperial armies, was shot dead early on, in the initial assault, saving his reputation from any accusations of having ordered the sack of Christianity's holiest city and physically threatening Christ's representative on earth.

The Borgho was soon gained, and whilst the Pope was flying to the castle, close to the city walls, the Spaniards fired their hackbuts at him, and at those of his suite. So narrow was the Pope's escape that had he tarried for three " creeds " more he would have been taken prisoner within his own palace. For one hour after this time the Spaniards went on slaying every man they came across in the Borgho, except a few who were fortunate enough to fly to the castle. Between six and eight thousand men were thus slaughtered on the occasion, whilst the Imperialists lost only about 100,...

[T]he plundering lasted nine or ten [days], during which the atrocities perpetrated by our soldiers have been unexampled, people of all nationalities being indiscriminately put to the sword or subjected to the most atrocious tortures to make them confess where their money and valuables, if they had any, were concealed.

*

The Papal Palace completely gutted, and in many places burnt; its beautiful rooms turned into stables owing to the great number of horsemen now quartered in it.1

The Pope and a few lucky cardinals escaped into the Castel Sant Angelo. The soldiers found enough booty to satisfy their appetites elsewhere in the city and left the citadel unmolested. It would be the de facto prison of the Pope for some six months to come.

While the Emperor and Pope were coming to terms, Henry was already putting out feelers in the matter of the divorce. He had yet to produce a male heir, he was not getting any younger and his queen was getting ever more plump-ish. A slender young courtier named Anne Boleyn had returned from the French court (then the finest of English finishing schools). She was made a lady-in-waiting to the queen who soon realized that they were in competition for the king's affections and almost as soon realized that the king could only satisfy his desires at the cost of replacing her as queen.

The French and the Italian League were no match for the Emperor's Spanish and mercenary troops. A huge number of German troops were due to arrive to reinforce the empire's forces. The League was hopelessly Italian in the worst sense of the word. They simply could not stop getting in each other's way when they weren't leaving each other in the lurch.

The French were being encouraged by their old Venetian allies to send reinforcements themselves. They were on the verge of being resoundingly beaten twice in a decade.

The Pope's ransom was enormous, reducing the his secular power substantially and obligating him to neutrality in further engagements between the Empire and the League. Nevertheless, His Holiness did what he could on the sly to help the efforts of his old allies.

Henry found himself asking for a divorce from a Pope in the power of his wife's nephew. The Pope would only equivocate in order to prevent angering that nephew while trying to maneuver the English king into providing some amount of counter-leverage that might turn the tide against that nephew.

These, then, were the conditions under which Henry VIII was petitioning the Pope for a divorce from his queen.



1 Calendar Of Letters, Despatches, and State Papers... Spain (1877). III.2.195-6.




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Monday, November 18, 2024

The Mayor of London to Lord Burghley. January 14, 1582. Preparations for the Government during the plague.

Here, as in our earlier piece, “The 1593 London Plague and the Bartholomew Fair”1, the particular interest lies in what the adjustments for public safety teach about normal life. Here we learn that the Mayor of London, Thomas Blanke, has been making preparations for the population of Westminster to explode as the Hilary Term2 will begin about the week from the next Monday. The area will be packed with people.

Normally, we learn, the various eateries would suddenly to be packed with customers. Not just government officials but their clerks and servants, the various laborers that will present themselves to transport the sudden deluge of goods through the area, the additional seasonal employees in the inns and stables, those to repair the area's infrastructure and many more. Into this welter, of course, will come the thousands of clients attending the Exchequer, the Courts, the offices of the Parliament, the Inns of Court, etc. All will need places to eat, sleep, perhaps stable their horses, and buy the merchandise necessary for daily life in government.

England had slowly learned its lessons about plague. The first to learn those lessons were the Venetians, the ships that entered their port being carriers of the sickness from the four corners of the known world. As early as the mid-1400s, they had begun quarantining the crews for 40 days before allowing cargoes to be unloaded. Even as late as the mid-1500s, England was still at the mercy of each new outbreak.

But here we learn that the mayor and Burghley are well aware of the concept of contagion. If any inn, eatery or other establishment has been the site of an infection within the previous two months a large-lettered sign must be posted, in clear, simple language, informing the public of the fact.

There could be no thought of moving the government. It would be an impossible task therefore some degree of risk must be accepted.

As we learn all of this, we also learn that pretty much every bit of space in and around Westminster is rented out or pressed into service to feed the multitude... and to make a gratifying profit. The popular areas, we further learn, were Fleet Street and the Temple area (around the Inn's of Court) and their environs.

While all of this is going on, there will still be wildly popular bear-baiting exhibitions at the Paris Gardens across the city in Southwark.

The Mayor

  of London to Lord Burghley. January 14, 1582.3


My duty humbly done to your Lordship, I have, according to your Lordship's direction by your letters, reformed the catalog of victuallers' hovvses infected within the liberties of this citie, from the 8th daye of November laste, being within the two monethes appointed by your former letters, which I have done as your Lordship willed, with advise of Mr. Norton, who informeth me that he hathe herein had speciall regard to two thinges, the one to give suche plaine description and note of the stretes and places as maye serve for easy notice to suche as repaire to this citie, the other that it be in suche shortenes as maye be brought into lesse than one face of a shete of paper to be fixed in places convenyent.

It may please your Lordship also to consyder of the places which I have thought good to signifie after my opinion in the note enclosed, having respecte to Westminster and the way thither, and the entrance allwaies into this citie. Further, I thought good to move your good Lordship to the same intent, that in terme tyme usually in manner all the howses in Flete-strete and the stretes and lanes adjoining, as also without Temple-barre, do use lodgings, victualling, or letting out of chambers, whether it be not your pleasure that all suche howses in those partes, as do so lodge and lett out chambers, though they be not otherwaies usuallie victuallers, be likewise noted, if they have bene infected within the space of these two monethes. I do humblie thanke your Lordship for your honorable and loving care of this citie in the saide matter of infection, and the repaire of the Quene's subjects hither, and for my owne parte will not faile in diligence by your direction according to my duty.

Edward de Vere's Ulysses & Agamemnon (1584)!

It maye please your Lordship to be further advertised, which I think you have alreadie heard of, a great mishappe at Paris-garden, where by ruin of all the scaffolds at once, yesterdaye a greate number of people are some presentlie slayne, and some maymed and grievouslie hurte. It giveth great occasion to acknowledge the hande of God for suche abuse of the sabbath daie, and moveth me in conscience to beseeche your Lordship to give order for redresse of suche contempt of God's service. I had to that ende treated with some justices of peace of that countie, who signifie themselfs to have very good zeale, but alledge want of commission, which we humblie referre to the consideration of your honorable wisedoms. And so I leave to trouble your Lordship.


At London, the 14th of Januarye, 1582.

Your Lordship's humble,

Thomas Blanke, Maior.




1 Purdy, Gilbert Wesley. “The 1593 London Plague and the Bartholomew Fair”. Virtual Grub Street, August 4, 2024. https://vgs-pbr-reviews.blogspot.com/2024/08/the-1593-london-plague-and-bartholomew.html

2 See my “A Thousand Years of English Terms”. Virtual Grub Street, June 2, 2019. https://gilbertwesleypurdy.blogspot.com/2019/06/a-thousand-years-of-english-terms.html

3 Wright, Thomas. Queen Elizabeth and her times, original letters... (1838). 183-4.



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